Bahasa Inggris

THE DEGREES OF COMPARISON

Kata sifat kuantitatif much dan little, dan kata sifat bilangan many and few, mempunyai tingkat

perbandingan (degrees comparison).

The degrees of comparison (tingkat perbandingan) berjumlah tiga tingkat, yaitu :

1. The positive degree (tingkat biasa)

2. The comparative (tingkat lebih/perbandingan)

3. The superlative (tingkat paling)

1) Kata sifat yang terdiri dari satu suku kata dan beberapa kata sifat bersuku kata dua dapat dibentuk comparative dengan menambahkan er atau r, dan superlative dengan menambahkan -est atau -st.

a) Jika positive berakhir dalam dua huruf mati atau dalam satu huruf mati yang didahului oleh dua huruf hidup, er dan est ditambahkan

Positive thick long short

Comparative thicker longer shorter

Superlative thickest longest shortest

b) Jika positive berakhir dalam satu huruf mati dan huruf mati itu didahului oleh sebuah vokal pendek, huruf mati terakhir digandakan kemudian ditambahkan er dan est

Positive big = besar wet = basah hot = panas

Comparative bigger = lebih besar wetter = lebih basah hotter = lebih panas

Superlative biggest = terbesar wettest = terbasah hottest = terpanas

c) Jika positive berakhir huruf e, hanya r dan st ditambahkan

Positive nice = baik fine = bagus wise = bijaksana

Comparative nicer = lebih baik finer = lebih bagus wiser = lebih bijak

Superlative nicest = terbaik finest = terbagus wisest = terbijaksana

d) Jika positive berakhir huruf y, dan y itu didahului oleh huruf mati, y diubah menjadi I, lalu ditambahkan er dan est

Positive wry = miring dry = kering happy = bahagia

Comparative wrier = lebih miring drier = lebih kering happier = lebih bahagia

Superlative wriest =paling miring driest = terkering happiest = terbahagia

e) Jika y didahului oleh sebuah huruf hidup, y tidak diubah menjadi i, tapi langsung ditambahkan r dan est

Positive gay = riang coy = pemalu grey = mendung

Comparative gayer = lebih riang coyer = lebih pemalu greyer = lebih mendung

Superlative gayest = teriang coyest = terpemalu greyest = termendung

f) Kata sifat yang terdiri dari dua suku kata (two syllables) yang berakhiran some, ow, le, er, ditambahkan er dan est

Positive wholesome narrow noble clever

Comparative wholesomer narrower nobler clever

Superlative wholesomest narrowest noblest cleverest

2) Kata sifat yang bersuku kata dua – two syllables (yang tekanan suaranya jatuh pada suku kata awal) atau lebih, ditambahkan more untuk membentuk comperatives dan most untuk superlatives

Positive famous = terkenal useful = berguna beautiful = cantik

Comparative more famous more useful more beautiful

Superlative most famous most useful most beautiful

3) Beberapa kata sifat dibentuk dengan cara tak beraturan (irregular) untuk comparatives dan superlatives

Positive fore bad ill evil good hind late late little much nigh old old near

Comparative former worse worse worse better hinder later latter less more nigher older elder nearer

Superlative foremost,first worst worst worst best hindmost latest last least most nighest,next oldest eldest nearest

Catatan 1 :

a) Former = yang terlebih dahulu/tadi ; yang pertama (di antara dua benda).

Contoh: I prefer the former fabric. Saya lebih menyukai kain yang terlebih dahulu

Of the two methods I prefer the former. Diantara kedua metoda itu saya lebih menyukai yang pertama

b) Later = yang belakangan

Contoh: I will take the later plane. Saya mau naik kapal terbang yang belakangan

c) Latter = yang belakangan/yang terakhir (di antara dua benda)

Contoh: I will take the latter book. Saya mau membeli buku yang terakhir (di antara dua buah buku)

d) Latest = yang belakangan/yang terakhir sampai sekarang

Contoh: What is the latest news of the war? bagaimanakah kabar terbaru (terakhir) perang itu?

e) Last = yang terakhir (yang paling akhir/penghabisan)

Contoh: This is our last opportunity. Inilah kesempatan terakhir kita

Z is the last letter of the alphabet. Z adalah huruf terakhir abjad

Penjelasan :

Later berarti yang belakangan atau lebih lambat, menunjuk pada waktu

Contoh: She came to school later than I. Ia datang ke sekolah lebih lambat daripada saya

Latter menunjuk pada urutan yang kedua di antara dua hal atau benda yang baru saja disebut

Contoh: Alexandria and Cairo are large cities; the latter has a population of over a million.

Alexandria dan Kairo adalah kota besar ; yang belakangan (yaitu Kairo) mempunyai penduduk lebih dari satu juta orang

Latest berarti yang terakhir sampai sekarang, sedangkan last berarti yang paling terakhir atau

penghabisan.

Jika kita katakan :

Did you read Mr. Green’s latest book? apakah anda membaca buku terakhir/terbaru Tuan Green?

Ini berarti bahwa Tn. Green boleh jadi akan mengarang lagi buku lain.

Kalau kita katakan :

Did you read Mr. Green’s last book? apakah anda membaca buku terakhir Tn. Green?

Ini berarti bahwa Tn. Green tidak atau tidak akan menulis buku lain lagi setelah buku yang

dimaksudkan tadi.

Catatan 2 :

a) Elder juga bentuk comperative dari old. Perhatikan perbedaan pemakaian elder dan older.

Contoh: John is my elder brother. John adalah kakak laki-laki saya

John is older than Lisa. John lebih tua daripada Lisa

b) Eldest juga bentuk superlative dari old. Perhatikan perbedaan pemakaian eldest dan oldest:

She is my eldest daughter. Ia putriku yang sulung

That is the oldest hotel in the city. Itulah hotel yang tertua di kota ini

Penjelasan :

Elder dan eldest dipakai pada orang saja, dan paling sering dipakai pada orang dalam hubungan

kekeluargaan. Sedangkan older dan oldest dipakai untuk menyatakan umur atau usia yang lebih tua atau tertua pada orang atau pun benda.

4) Ada enam buah kata adverbs (kata keterangan) dalam bentuk positive degrees, tetapi adjectives (kata sifat) dalam bentuk comparative dan supelative

Positive fore far in out neath up

Comparative further farther inner outer nether upper

Superlative furthest farthest innermost, inmost uttermost, utmost nethermost uppermost

5) Kata-kata sifat tertentu tidak dapat diperbandingkan

perfect = sempurna

unique = unik

supreme = tertinggi

preferable = lebih baik

natural = alamiah

right = benar

wrong = salah

etc.

POSITIVE DEGREE (tingkat positif) digunakan untuk menunjukkan bahwa sesuatu itu sama tingkatannya. Perbandingan untuk sesuatu yang tingkatannya sama digunakan as … as.

Contoh: Ali is 1,6 meters and Anwar is also 1,6 meters.

Ali is AS TALL AS Anwar.

This book cost Rp. 2.000,-. That book costs Rp. 2.000,-

This book is AS EXPENSIVE AS that one

Bentuk negatif dari perbandingan ini adalah sebagai berikut:

Contoh: Jakarta is not AS WARM AS Surabaya.

Rumus :

as + positive + as

no less + positive + than

not more + positive + than

Contoh:

This girl is as clever as that. Anak perempuan ini sepandai anak perempuan itu

This girl is no less clever than that. Anak perempuan ini sama pandainya dengan anak perempuan itu

That girl is not more clever than this. Gadis itu tidak lebih pandai daripada gadis ini

(berarti gadis itu dan gadis ini sama pandainya)

B. COMPARATIVE DEGREE digunakan apabila dua orang atau benda dikatakan tidak sama dalam hal sifat yang tertentu Yang satu lebih dari yang lain. Tingkat perbandingan dinyatakan dengan menggunakan “-er” jika kata sifat itu hanya memiliki satu suku kata (one syllable) serta di tambah kata “than.”

Contoh: Handi is TALLER than Anton

A train is FASTER than a bus

Jika kata sifat itu diakhiri dengan le, r, ow, y, maka tambahkan “-er”. Jika kata sifat diakhiri dengan “y”, maka berubah menjadi “ier.”

Contoh: This problem is simpler than the one we had yesterday.

The street in front of my house is narrower than this one.

Comparative degree yang menggunakan lebih dari satu suku kata (two or more syllables) digunakan “more.” Suku kata maksudnya beautiful = beau-ti-ful (3 suku kata); expensive = ex-pen-sive (tiga suku kata), useful = use-ful (dua suku kata)

Contoh: TV Program are more interesting than radio program.

My trousers are more expensive than yours.

Rumus :

comparative + than

Contoh:

Lisa is taller than her sister. Lisa lebih tinggi daripada saudara perempuannya

Jakarta is bigger than Surabaya. Jakarta lebih besar daripada Surabaya

PERHATIKAN!

Aturan untukk dua suku kata (two syllabels) lebih rumit. Beberapa adjective membentuk comparative and superlative dengan –er, -est., beberapa dengan more, most, yang lainnya boleh kedua-duanya.

Two-syllable adjectives dengan –er, -est

1. Adjective berakhiran –y yang didahului oleh konsonan

Contoh: pretty – prettier, dirty – dirtier, noisy – noisier, happy – happier, unhappy – unhappier

2. Adjective berakhiran –ple, -ble, dan biasanya –tle, -dle

Contoh: simple – simpler, noble – nobler, humble – humbler, subtle – subtler, idle – idler

Two-syllable adjective dengan more, most

1. Sebagian besar adjective berakhir suffix derivatif: -ous, -ish, -ful, -ing, -ed, etc.

Contoh: more famous, more useful, more childish, more interesting, more tired

2. Sebagian besar adjective berakhiran –ct, -nt, -st

Contoh: more exact, more recent, more honest, more urgent

Two-Syllable adjective dengan –er, -est or more, most (yang bentuk –er, -est kurang formal)

1. Adjective berakhiran –er: cleverer, tenderer, bitterer

2. Adjective berakhiran –ow: narrower, shallower, mellower

3. Adjective berakhiran –some: hansomer, wholesomer, lonesomer

4. Others: penekanan pada suku kata pertama: pleasanter, crueler, quieter, stupider

Penekanan pada suku kata kedua: politer, profounder, remoter, obscurer, sincerer, severer, securer

C. SUPERLATIVE DEGREE (tingkat superlative) yaitu apabila seseorang atau sebuah benda dikatakan melebihi atau mengungguli semua orang atau benda yang lain yang sama macamnya, kita menggunakan superlative degree dengan the … of.

Ketika kata sifat terdiri dari satu atau dua suku kata, digunakan dengan menambahkan “est.”

Contoh: The Wisma Nusantara building is THE TALLEST building in Jakarta.

An elephant is THE BIGGEST animal nowadays.

Ketika kata sifat berakhir dengan “y”, maka tingkat superlative berubah menjadi “iest.”

Contoh: Today is THE HAPPIEST day for me. It’s my birthday.

I don’t know which is THE HEAVIEST metal.

Kata sifat yang lebih dari dua suku kata menggunakan “MOST.”

Passive Voice

 

Use of Passive

Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known, however, who or what is performing the action.

Example: My bike was stolen.

In the example above, the focus is on the fact that my bike was stolen. I do not know, however, who did it.

Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite than active voice, as the following example shows:

Example: A mistake was made.

In this case, I focus on the fact that a mistake was made, but I do not blame anyone (e.g. You have made a mistake.).

Form of Passive

Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle (3rd column of irregular verbs)

Example: A letter was written.

When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:

• the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence
• the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle)
• the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is dropped)

Examples of Passive

Tense		Subject	Verb	Object
Simple Present	Active:	Rita	writes	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	is written	by Rita.
Simple Past	Active:	Rita	wrote	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	was written	by Rita.
Present Perfect	Active:	Rita	has written	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	has been written	by Rita.
Future I	Active:	Rita	will write	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	will be written	by Rita.
Hilfsverben	Active:	Rita	can write	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	can be written	by Rita.

Examples of Passive

Tense		Subject	Verb	Object
Present Progressive	Active:	Rita	is writing	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	is being written	by Rita.
Past Progressive	Active:	Rita	was writing	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	was being written	by Rita.
Past Perfect	Active:	Rita	had written	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	had been written	by Rita.
Future II	Active:	Rita	will have written	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	will have been written	by Rita.
Conditional I	Active:	Rita	would write	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	would be written	by Rita.
Conditional II	Active:	Rita	would have written	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	would have been written	by Rita.

Passive Sentences with Two Objects

Rewriting an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means that one of the two objects becomes the subject, the other one remains an object. Which object to transform into a subject depends on what you want to put the focus on.

	Subject	Verb	Object 1	Object 2
Active:	Rita	wrote	a letter	to me.
Passive:	A letter	was written	to me	by Rita.
Passive:	I	was written	a letter	by Rita.

.                    

As you can see in the examples, adding by Rita does not sound very elegant. That’s why it is usually dropped.

Personal and Impersonal Passive

Personal Passive simply means that the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence. So every verb that needs an object (transitive verb) can form a personal passive.

Example: They build houses. – Houses are built.

Verbs without an object (intransitive verb) normally cannot form a personal passive sentence (as there is no object that can become the subject of the passive sentence). If you want to use an intransitive verb in passive voice, you need an impersonal construction – therefore this passive is called Impersonal Passive.

Example: he says – it is said

Impersonal Passive is not as common in English as in some other languages (e.g. German, Latin). In English, Impersonal Passive is only possible with verbs of perception (e. g. say, think, know).

Example: They say that women live longer than men. – It is said that women live longer than men.

Although Impersonal Passive is possible here, Personal Passive is more common.

Example: They say that women live longer than men. – Women are said to live longer than men.

The subject of the subordinate clause (women) goes to the beginning of the sentence; the verb of perception is put into passive voice. The rest of the sentence is added using an infinitive construction with 'to' (certain auxiliary verbs and that are dropped).

Sometimes the term Personal Passive is used in English lessons if the indirect object of an active sentence is to become the subject of the passive sentence.




 DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

Direct and Indirect Speech, yang juga kita kenal dengan istilah lain yaitu Reported Speech. Direct Speect adalah kalimat yang diucapkan secara langsung oleh pembicara dan jika ditulis kalimat tersebut akan diberi tanda kutip. Sedangkan Indirect Speech adalah kalimat yang kita laporkan kepada orang lain secara tidak langsung dan tanpa diberi koma.
Contoh:
Reporting verb: Tono says,
Reported words ”I’m very good at English”
Tense yang harus kita perhatikan dalam pola ini yaitu:
Direct Speech:
Simple Present Tense
Present Continuous Tense
Present Perfect Tense
Present Perfect Continuous Tense
Simple Past Tense
Simple Future Tense
Future Continouos Tense
Conditional
Indirect Speech:
Simple Past Tense
Past Continuous Tense
Past Perfect Tense
Past Perfect Continuous Tense
Past Perfect Tense
Past Future Tense/Conditional
Past Future Continuous Tense (Conditional Continuous)
Conditional
Kalau reported speech berhubungan dengan kebenaran umum atau fakta yang sudah menjadi kebiasaan, present indefinite atau simple present dalam reported speech tidak diubah ke dalam bentuk lampau yang sesuai, melainkan tetap persis sebagaimana adanya,
Contoh :
He said, “The sun rises in the east” → He said that the sun rises in the east.
PERUBAHAN ADVERB OF TIME (KETERANGAN WAKTU) YANG PERLU DIPERHATIKAN:
Direct  :                                               Indirect :
Now                                        →        Then
Today                                      →        That day
Tonight                                    →        That night
This week                                →        That week
Yesterday                                 →        The day before
The day before yesterday        →        Two days before
Last night                                →        The night before
Last week/year                        →        The previous week/year
A year ago                               →        A year before/The previous year
Three years ago                       →        Three years before
Tomorrow                               →        The next day/The following day
The day after tomorrow          →        In two day’s time/The following day
Next week/year                       →        The following week/year
On Sunday                              →        On Sunday
Here                                        →        There
This book                                →        The book
This                                         →        That
These                                       →        Those
Over there                               →        Over there
*etc.
PERUBAHAN-PERUBAHAN AUXILIARIES (KATA BANTU) YANG HARUS DIPERHATIKAN:
Can      →        Could
May     →        Might
Might  →        Might
Must    →        Would have to (kegiatan yang akan datang)/had to (keharusan yang biasa)
*etc.
Contoh:
The man said, “I must mend the wall next week”
The man said that he would have to mend the wall the following week.
Pria itu mengatakan bahwa dia harus memperbaiki dinding minggu berikutnya.
The girl said, ” I must wash my hands before eating”
The girl said that she had to wash her hands before eating.
Gadis itu berkata bahwa dia harus mencuci tangannya sebelum makan.
*etc.
Direct and Indirect Speech ada 3 macam:
1. Statement (Pernyataan) yang menggunakan “that”
He said, “we will go to Singapore tomorrow”
He said that they would go to Singapore the next day.
Bob said, ” I’m a university student”
Bob said that he was a university student.

2. Command (Perintah) menambahkan kata “to” sebagai penghubung kalimat melaporkan dengan yang dilaporkan. “not to” dalam perintah negatif.
He told me, “wait for me !”
He told me to wait for him.
She told me, “don’t cheat anymore !”
She told me not to cheat anymore.

3. Question (Pertanyaan) jika kalimat dari jenis “yes or no question”, maka bentuk laporannya menggunakan if atau whether.
Ina asked me, “Do you really love me?”
Ina asked me if/whether I really loved her.
Mixed type:
Contoh:
Anton asked me, “what’s happening to you ? You look so pale”
Anton asked me what was happening to me as I looked so pale.
Catatan: Past Tense kadang-kadang tidak berubah dalam percakapan.

EXAMPLE DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH :

1.      D : She says to her friend, “ I have been reading “

I : She says to her friend that he has been reading

2.      D : He will say, “ The girl wasn’t ugly “

I : He will tell them that the girl wasn’t ugly

3.      D : Reza said, “ I’m very sleepy “

I : Reza said that he was very sleepy

4.      D : He has told you, “ I am writing “

I : He has told you that he is writing

5.      D : Mother said to her son, “ study hard “

I : Mothe advised her son to study hard

6.      D : My friend said to me, “ I don’t like football “

I : My friend said to me that he didn’t like football

7.      D : She said, “ I didn’t go to campus

I : She said that she hadn’t gone to campus this morning

8.      D : Rikza says, “ I have seen that movies “

I : Rikza says that she has seen that movies

9.      D : Mother asked her, “ Don’t go there alone “

I : Mother asked her not to go there alone

10.  D : Father asked robi, “ Don’t smoke too much “

I : Father asked robi not to smoke too much

Referensi:

Jack, Saharuddin Hasan. 2003. The Easiest Way of Comprehending English Grammar. Jakarta : Batavia Press
Djauhari, Imam D. 1996. Mastery on English Grammar. Surabaya : Indah Surabaya
http://irena040506.wordpress.com/2010/05/21/direct-and-indirect-speech/
 http://wantosakti.wordpress.com/category/ug-softskill/